Research Methods in Psychology

Tips on APA Style

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This page represents the distilled knowledge of the cybergods concerning APA style requirements. In no way should it be viewed as a final resource. You should always check the APA Style Manual (5th ed.) and the resource links found on our course homepage for more detailed information. However, this page will give you a quick way for understanding the purpose, function, and organization of a manuscript prepared according to APA style requirements. Also, the bottom of this page has the launchpad that is hotlinked to detailed requirements needed to successfully complete each of the lab reports due this semester.

All disciplines establish a set of guidelines regulating how information is communicated. For instance, published research on literary criticism adheres to the style requirements of the Modern Language Association. Many physical sciences follow the Chicago Manual of Style. Currently, over 300 periodicals follow the style requirements of the American Psychological Association (APA). Therefore, the ability of psychology students to read (and write) in APA style is an important component of a research methodology class.

A well written paper should read like a good story; it's suspenseful to the point that the reader can't put it down without knowing what results and conclusions were reached by the end of the study. Here are some tips on style to keep in mind as you prepare a well written APA manuscript:

The manuscript that you prepare doesn't quite look like the published paper. For instance, authors attach Figures and Tables at the end of their submitted manuscripts. However, the publisher's type-setter determines the final size and placement of these items on the journal page. Also, authors do not concern themselves with the newspaper column format typically used in journals.
Always write in 3rd-person, past tense, and in active voice. Active voice is preferred because it is a much more direct and vigorous form of communication than passive voice. So instead of writing "the hypothesis was that..." you should consider "I hypothesized that...". The one exception to the past-tense rule is the research prospectus which you may write in future tense (this is a matter of personal preference). For an example of a research prospectus click the view button .
The lab reports involve writing sections of an APA style manuscript. Appendix A of the Heiman textbook has an example and you can also view an example manuscript from your browser. The APA Style Manual (5th ed.) also has an example paper. For an on-line example of an APA stylemanuscript click the view button .
Your word processor has lots of fancy options like full justification, bold, and underlined text (not to mention myriad type faces and sizes). Don't use them! Only left justification is permitted and italicize only specific words or phrases that require emphasis. Statistical symbols (e.g., F-test, and N) as well as the titles of books and periodicals (e.g., The Journal of Experimental Psychology) are always italicized.
Set your word processor to double spacing. Everything is double spaced including footnotes, end-notes, figure captions, and references. The double spacing requirement allows editors to quickly calculate how many journal pages would be needed for a manuscript. Double-spacing also allows editors to write comments between the lines of the mauscript.
Avoiding pronouns such as "he," and "she" reduces the chance of using sexist language (e.g., refering to all participants regardless of sex as "he"). You should also avoid the use of pronouns such as "this," "those," "they," and "them" because of their vagueness and susceptibility to confusion.
Every page of your manuscript must have a page number and page header (starting with the tile page). This allows editors, reviewers, and type-setters to keep each manuscript intact throughout the editorial process.

A single-study report is organized around a set of manuscript sections. The outline below will give you the organization and logic of these sections for an APA style manuscript.

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Section	Description	New page?
Title Page	This is page 1 of the manuscript. It should include a title, authors, affiliations, and running head. A good title should not exceed 10-12 words, yet it gives the reader an accurate sense of your study.	yes
Abstract Page	This is page 2 of the manuscript. An abstract is a "mini-paper." It should include a title, and brief summary of your research. You have about 150 words to spread around 4 sentences. A good strategy is to organize these 4 sentences around your hypothesis, methods, results, and conclusions.	yes
Introduction	This is page 3 of the manuscript. The Introduction should include the title and the beginning body of the text. The introduction should place your research in a theoretical context. Relevant studies are cited according to APA style requirements. A really compelling introduction will culminate in the hypothesis that is being tested.	yes
Method	The Method section usually is organized around three "subsections." These subsections are: Participants, Design and Materials, and Procedure. The true test of a good Method section is whether someone else can replicate your study. And like a good cookbook, the recipes must be easy to follow (i.e., operational definitions are clear).	no
Results	This section is where the results of your statistical analysis are reported. If appropriate, a Figure or Table can be used to illustrate statistically significant findings. "Just the facts" are presented here without any interpretation.	no
Discussion	This section is where the reader is offered an interpretation of your results. Theoretical closure (conclusion) is reached when the references cited earlier are reviewed in conjunction with your study. Possible limitations of your study, as well as future research avenues can be explored here.	no
References	This section is an alphabetized listing of all references cited in the body of the text. There must be a one-to-one correspondence between citations and references. The format is different for journal articles, authored books, edited books, and online sources. Below this table you will find examples of different types of references.	yes
Figures/Tables	Each Figure and Table is prepared separately on its own page. Figures and Tables are attached to the end of the manuscript rather than embedded in the text.	yes

Authorship and intellectual property rights are discussed in the APA's Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct (1992). The code of ethics is viewable on-line at http://www.apa.org/ethics/code.html. Essentially, authorship is reserved for individuals who make substantial contributions to the paper. In order to minimize misunderstandings and missed deadlines, researchers should communicate with each other at the onset of a project to clarify individual responsibilities. Note that if an individual did not make any contributions to the project he/she has no claim on intellectual property rights. Simply put, to list a non-contributor as an author on the title page of a manuscript would be unethical.
The Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct (APA, 1992) also clearly specifies the procedures for the ethical treatment of participants. In fact, all APA journals require a signed statement from authors indicating that they conducted the reported research in accordance with APA's ethical code of conduct. This code of ethics covers issues such as participants' rights, plagiarism, and authorship (intellectual property rights).
Remember, this is NOT a class on creative writing! Don't guess if you are unsure on how to format a specific section of your APA style paper. Whenever possible, consult the APA style manual for detailed quidelines. You can also click on this link to a FAQ webpage (frequently asked questions) hosted by the APA. The content links page accessed from our course homepage is hot-linked to other web resources that can help you with APA style requirements.

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Below is the launchpad for each of the lab reports due this semester. Just click on the hypertext link for the particular lab report (i.e., section) that interests you.


Lab Report	Brief Description	Due Date
Prospectus	Your lab group's research proposal.	5pm February 8
Introduction & Reference Section	Providing a theoretical context and rationale for your project (with relevant research citations).	5pm March 26
Method Section	The procedures used to collect the data.	5pm April 12
Final Paper	This is your lab group's revision of earlier lab reports. You do not need to resubmit the prospectus as part of the final paper. A hardcopy of the paper is due at the final exam.	11 am April 21

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This Page Maintained by: Dr. Jay Brophy
This page was last revised on January 11, 2007.